The Birth of Modern Snooker
By V. Mordan “Archivist” and the team of
Rev. 10th October 2025
This is a short version of the article. The complete version is available for download in PDF format at the following link:
The Birth of Modern Snooker. By V. Mordan. Rev. 10th October 2025
The full version comprises all the arguments and hypotheses, quotations, links to primary sources, footnotes, a bibliography, illustrations, and a significant amount of unique information that was not included in the abridged version, but is of considerable value for enthusiasts of the history of the origin of snooker.
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Created in late July 1875 in the officers’ mess of the 11th Foot in Jubbulpore, Central India, as a ‘cure for boredom,’ snooker quickly gained popularity among commercial games of the ‘pool’ class, though young Lieutenant Neville Chamberlain merely added one, and subsequently a further two more, coloured balls to the well-known and, it must be said, already boring game of Black Pool. The main difference between this game and Life Pool was the presence of a ‘neutral’ black ball (Rover), which was placed in the centre of the table before the commencement of the game and, once pocketed, was returned to the same place, leading to the game also being called Everlasting or Perpetual Pool.
Incidentally, the black ball here is more of a designation than a statement of colour, since in the nineteenth century, and even more so in a provincial garrison in India, the presence of even a couple of sets of pool balls was a rarity, as they were too expensive and quickly lost their colour in the hot and humid climate. It would happen that a dirty beige, discoloured ball with a few spots or crosses would be placed centrally on the table, and all the players would agree that it was the ‘black’ ball if they were playing Black Pool, or the ‘blue’ ball if that particular club or garrison favoured the older version of the game called ‘Blue Peter,’ and also, would diligently remember which colour corresponded to a ball bearing two spots and which to a ball bearing three crosses.
The precise quantity of balls (it is only confirmed that yellow and green were used) added in the summer of 1875 remains unknown. However, this was not a relevant consideration, as Chamberlain had only just formulated the idea, and there were no existing rules to address this. It was simply another pastime for the wet evenings of the monsoon season. Young lieutenants experimented at the billiard table to alleviate boredom, and even the game’s name was chosen with a note of humour. However, this was not to last long, and in 1876, Neville Chamberlain abandoned his ‘invention’ when he was assigned to the 2nd Regiment, Central India Horse, in Goona (some 200 miles northwest of Jubbulpore).
Snooker’s ‘rebirth’ occurred in late 1881 and early 1882, when Chamberlain, firstly, encountered the talented comedian Colonel Frederick Keyser, who performed a character nicknamed ‘Snooker’ on the amateur regimental stage and was also a keen enthusiast of the game of Pyramids; secondly, he gained free time and access to the elite clubs and high society of South India, being assigned to General Roberts’ staff.
By 1886, snooker in its original form had been fully established, and although regional and even club-specific variations in the rules persisted, the game had nevertheless acquired recognisable features. By this time, it had already spread quite widely throughout the world thanks to officers who had been on leave in their homeland or had retired, as well as the redeployment of some military units to other theatres of war across the Empire.
Four coloured balls (typically yellow, green, brown and blue, although there were numerous exceptions and local variations in colour combinations), located in a central line on the main spots of a standard English billiards table. A pyramid of fifteen red balls. A white cue ball, the same for all players. A strict order of ball striking: first the red, then the coloured ball. And also a complete absence of a sporting element, with no scoring system in place, and payments were made in cash immediately after the shot or miss. There were also numerous interpretations of many controversial moments. Consequently, sports press experts responded to readers’ questions with caution, recommending that they carefully read the local version of the rules before the game to avoid financial losses due to ignorance of the intricacies. This is the most complete description of snooker in the late 1880s.
On 1 September 1886, an event took place that may have significantly impacted the future of snooker: Sir Neville Francis Fitzgerald Chamberlain married Mary Henrietta Hay, daughter of General Alexander Charles Hay and Annie Dobbs. From that moment on, and even more so after the birth of his daughter Nora in 1887, snooker ceased to be of interest to its creator, and Chamberlain only remembered it again in his old age, in 1938.
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During the 1870s and 1880s, snooker was popular in relatively narrow circles, and billiard players, both amateur and professional, viewed it with caution, considering it, while interesting, still a pastime associated with officers’ messes or pubs. So, the identity of the game’s creator was of little interest. Subsequently, when snooker gained recognition as a sport and questions emerged regarding the game’s original rules and concepts, no one could reliably claim to know who created the game or when.
As might be expected, a number of mutually exclusive versions of the game emerged, with eyewitnesses appearing who asserted that they had ‘personally known’ Captain (or Colonel?) Snooker, who served either in the artillery or in the Bengal Cavalry. Some claimed that the game was brought over from the United States, while another version of the game’s origin suggests that it was created by Australian champion Frank Smith Sr., who is said to have added a couple of coloured balls to the game Shell-Out. There were many rumours, but none of the versions were confirmed by documents. Snooker enthusiasts therefore had to develop and promote the new game at their own discretion, which did not always coincide with the original concept of the game’s creator.
Some time after Neville Chamberlain stopped evolving snooker in 1886 and let his invention ‘float freely,’ publications appeared with snooker rules using six coloured balls instead of the standard four, placed on the billiard spot, pyramid spot, centre spot and centre spot in baulk. The ‘free’ spots in the right-hand corner and the left-hand corner of the baulk were seldom used in billiards, pyramids and pool, and the only known exception to this is Slosh, but it appears to have been created around the same time or a little later as snooker. Consequently, it is unclear which game influenced the other, or whether there was any influence at all.
Be that as it may, snooker with six coloured balls, albeit not in the modern arrangement (blue stood at the apex of the pyramid, pink in the centre of the table, and green in the centre of sector D, swapping places with brown), gradually took over billiard clubs, first in England and then throughout the Empire.
The arrangement of balls on the table, as well as their division into ‘cheap’ and ‘expensive’ ones, has deep historical roots and was justified in the past when billiard balls were made of ivory and dyed using organic dyes according to a rather complex technology. In terms of both new sets and the cost of repainting after discolouration, the most affordable balls were yellow, green, brown, and red. In terms of cost, pink and especially black balls were the most expensive. This meant that small billiard clubs or officers’ messes in provincial garrisons could not always afford to purchase a full set of balls. The blue ball was in the middle price range and could be called either ‘the most expensive of the cheap’ or ‘the cheapest of the expensive’.
That is why the set of nine pool balls offered for sale in Indian newspapers included three yellow balls, two green balls, one red ball, one brown ball, one blue ball, and one white ball. The pink and black balls were either purchased separately and treated with the utmost care, allowing them to be placed on the table only on special occasions, or were included in sets of a dozen pool balls, which were mainly purchased by elite clubs.
In the game of snooker, three low-cost balls and one expensive ball, typically blue, were originally used. However, there are references to black and pink balls, which were placed on the billiard spot between the pyramid of reds and the cushion or on the pyramid spot. It is important to understand that at the end of the nineteenth century, and even at the beginning of the twentieth, there was still no scientific basis or theoretical justification for building breaks, and snooker was played using the tactics of Pyramids, which led to completely unpredictable consequences.
After the pyramid was broken, in most cases the expensive ball was ‘locked’ among the red ones and ‘came into play’ closer to the end of the game, when most of the balls had been cleared from the table. Of course, this did not always happen, but according to probability theory, the expensive ball (or, in the six-colour variant, the expensive balls) was used less often than the cheap ones and, accordingly, suffered less damage during collisions.
Another nuance was of great importance, which, while not immediately obvious today, was almost decisive at the end of the nineteenth century. It is a fact worthy of note that in times gone by, tournaments were organised not by associations or federations, but by companies that manufactured billiard tables, balls made of ivory and other equipment used for the game. Following the establishment of the Billiard Association of Great Britain and Ireland on 1 February 1885, which assumed responsibility for organising championships, for many decades exhibition matches and commercial tournaments, which brought the players the most profit, were organised by the manufacturers of tables, who also owned elite billiard halls.
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Frank Smith Sr., a renowned professional and multiple-titled champion in English billiards, who managed the billiard room at the Australia Hotel in Sydney for many years, claimed that he and Henry Alcock, a billiard table manufacturer, added two coloured balls to the original version of snooker (or, as the game was known in Australia at the time, Snook ‘Em) at the request of Indian Army personnel visiting the Victorian Club in Melbourne around 1887. While this cannot be documented, there are numerous independent testimonies from respected figures in the billiards community whose trustworthiness is beyond doubt. Furthermore, sufficient circumstantial evidence has been found to confidently assert that it was Frank Smith Sr. who transformed the commercial four-ball game into the modern six-ball snooker. It is true that the arrangement was somewhat different from what we are used to; however, the three inexpensive balls also occupied the spots in D, albeit in a different order, and the expensive balls were positioned on the central spot (pink), the pyramid spot (blue), and the billiard spot (black).
The rules for six-ball snooker were published in 1889, and copyrighted of Messrs Burroughes & Watts, a renowned English billiard equipment manufacturer. Subsequently, the same rules, using the same ball arrangement, were published by Henry Upton Alcock, an Australian table manufacturer. Consequently, it can be deduced that billiard equipment manufacturers were keen to promote a new game that required such a large and, consequently, expensive set of balls.
Although by the end of the nineteenth century, the already invented composite balls were beginning to slowly fill the pubs and provincial billiard clubs, professionals preferred to use traditional ivory balls, so the companies’ profits from promoting snooker should have increased significantly.
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The primary criticism of snooker was that the skill of pocketing balls was considered secondary, and a novice player who accidentally created a difficult snooker during a safety, could potentially beat even a professional. Conversely, a single misstep by a seasoned professional could create an excellent winning position for a beginner.
The controversy surrounding snooker intensified to the point where it was labelled a gamble created by Satan, with calls to ban it as the most unpredictable game of chance. Some clubs in the late 19th century took this approach, displaying notices on their walls that listed the games, including snooker, that were prohibited on their premises. While this may seem somewhat unusual to learn today, this was the state of affairs at the time.
Two factors can be identified as instrumental in the progression of snooker, helping it overcome challenges and establish its position as a respected sport by the end of the first third of the 20th century:
Firstly, the game sparked the curiosity of professionals, some of whom recognised its enormous potential and began to use it as a secondary game, replacing Pyramids after sessions at exhibition matches in English billiards;
Secondly, the first snooker handicap tournaments held in various clubs, regions, as well as countries and continents, contributed to the association of snooker with a real sport where victory is determined by the number of points scored or the number of games won, rather than by the amount paid by opponents for a successful shot or spent after a miss when trying to get out of a snooker.
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From the mid-nineteenth century onwards, Pyramids enjoyed a rapid rise in popularity, peaking in the 1870s and 1880s. Championships and commercial games were held, and following the afternoon or evening sessions of exhibitions and challenge matches in English Billiards, several games of Pyramid commenced to be played. This was initially implemented for two key reasons: firstly, to fill the time paid by spectators who had purchased tickets in case the required number of points was reached too quickly; and secondly, to provide entertainment for the audience, who had become weary of observing the movement of three balls across the green baize.
The dynamic Pyramids, which allowed only one shot (winning hazard) out of the standard three and determined the winner by the number of games won (i.e., ‘best of’), were significantly different from the highly intellectual, yet monotonous, English Billiards; however, by the late 1890s, Pyramids had a worthy competitor for the secondary game spot in exhibition and commercial matches. Although snooker shares a resemblance to Pyramids, with the fifteen red balls arranged in a pyramid shape and only one permitted shot, it offers players many additional options, making the match a highly intriguing spectacle, impossible to tear yourself away from.
In 1906, Scipio Africanus ‘SAM’ Mussabini provided a description of the game in an article published in the Morning Leader:
‘To-day, however, snooker’s pool— that fascinating game founded upon a medley of the 15 red pyramid and seven pool balls ranging from the white to the black— is all the rage. It provides a nice change from billiards. The labor of break-making comes along so seldom that ‘snooker’ must be described as a comparatively restful game. It is not fatiguing, although provoking many a nervous sensation to the most staid players going. To see a man ‘bang up at the reds,’ as many are willing to chance their luck by making one forceful thrust for what the Fates may hold in store, will create apprehensive feelings all around the table. I have seen most classes of players at ‘snooker,’ and only recently Stevenson and Osborne have edified me with expositions in this line.
Their wonderful accuracy in inserting the colored balls makes them too great efficients for the amateur to learn much from. There are no scattering shots included in their treatment of ‘snooker.’ It is a matter of nice calculation and strokes gauged to very exact ‘strength’ with as much regard to preventing the other player scoring as doing so themselves. There is more in the game than meets the casual eye when the professors handle it.’
In the same article, the author goes on to praise the snooker break in its early 20th-century sense, which allows us today to appreciate how billiard players of that time approached different aspects of the game:
‘To my fancy there is nothing more picturesque than a longish break at ‘snooker.’ It is most interesting to see a player guiding his ball to different parts of the table in the sequence of his accurately-made strokes on the colored balls. First, a red with an eye to the black with your second shot. The black ball is the one that you keep working to get on as it counts the maximum number of points, a serviceable seven. Wherever it lies the white ball, unless you are forced to play possum and run it into safe quarters, should be near at hand.
The biggest breaks are made from the black ball when it stands on its allotted resting place, the billiard spot. When you see it there with a clear course left and right to the corner pockets with some reds knocking about in the same vicinity, then the cat is likely to get among the pigeons. Somebody will surely grasp this golden opportunity amid a dull silence, but feverish anxiety pervading the rest of the party.
There is a monotony about this play on the black ball, however, which is too reminiscent of the old spot-stroke tactics to present the beauties of winning-hazard striking and positional play. You want an all-round the table trick to show the manoeuvring of the cue-ball to the most advantage. To see it deal impartially with the blue, pink, yellow, and brown in between the necessary holing of the more humble, if more highly-colored reds, is pretty play, indeed! That is the real ‘snooker’!’
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Consequently, from 1900 onwards, snooker began to overtake pyramid as a secondary game in exhibition and commercial matches amongst professionals and amateurs. As a result, over the course of several years, most players gained experience in snooker, and spectators became accustomed to the new show and began to understand its nuances.
Snooker’s history can be broadly categorised into several distinct stages, each of which represents a significant milestone on the path to achieving global recognition within the billiards community. It is important to note that at the beginning of the 20th century, the future success of snooker as a global sport was not foreseeable, but by the second half of the 20th century, snooker had become a dominant force, virtually displacing English billiards, other forms of billiards and pool from the media landscape.
The first stage, which can be termed ‘Commercial Game,’ lasted from its inception until December 1894, or nearly twenty years. Subsequently, a period ensued characterised by the organisation of a variety of club and regional handicaps, held in different locations around the world. Each of these events featured its own distinctive approach, incorporating varied tournament structures, scoring systems and winner determination methods. This stage lasted for approximately ten years.
The first-ever published account of a handicap tournament held at The Bradford Union Club occurred on 22 December 1894, and this date can be officially considered the birthday of the sport of snooker. For the first time, the winner of a snooker match was determined not by the amount of money won, but by the number of points scored. Unfortunately, no information about the tournament structure, a full list of participants, or a scoresheet has survived, but the fact that this tournament was held cannot be overstated; it was a truly revolutionary step forward.
The third stage, which lasted just over three years, can be termed ‘Amateur Sports,’ as it began with a tournament held according to the then-conventional billiard structure. On 11 February 1905, a tournament was held at the Railway Hotel in East Croydon that marked the transition of snooker to a new level: it became a sport that could be played within the established English tournament structure. The initiative was conceptualised by the marker of the billiard saloon, Albert Edward Bush, who also organised and hosted the event, which was formally called the ‘American Snooker Pool Tournament.’ The tournament structure, including the scoring system and determining the winners, was completely adopted from English billiard competitions.
Of course, this structure did not align with the spirit of snooker and was not aligned with its capabilities. However, the fact that this event was met with a degree of enthusiasm in the billiards world suggested that professional events may emerge in the near future. The question was which of the major professional tournament organisers would take the first step.
The fourth stage, which was professional but not yet aligned with the spirit of snooker, lasted for a brief period of only two months, concluding on 6 June 1908. On 14 August 1907, the Sporting Life published an article by Messrs Burroughs and Watts announcing their intention to organise a snooker pool tournament alongside billiards.
This new event promised to be an innovation and was poised to become a popular attraction for both players and spectators. At the close of each session (afternoon and evening), the players will compete in one game of snooker pool. This will be a scratch event, and the player who achieves the highest aggregate of points by the tournament’s conclusion will be declared the winner.
The results were published on 28 March 1908, and Charles Dawson was declared the winner of the first professional snooker tournament, with a margin of 230 points over Cecil Harverson, who secured second place. As previously mentioned, while snooker bore more resemblance to Pyramids than English Billiards, the scoring and determination of the winner were carried out according to the billiard system.
It is clear that the modern era is not uniform and can be divided into many distinct periods. However, from a global perspective, it is considered to be modern snooker, which commenced with the legendary match between John Roberts Jr. and Tom Reece. It all began in April 1908, when John Roberts Jr. issued a challenge to anyone interested in testing their strength in a 101-game snooker match, with a prize of £50 per side. The winnings would be split evenly: half would go to the player who scored the most points, and the other half would go to the player who won the most games.
And it is precisely this condition that marks the final step in snooker’s evolution into a modern game. Of course, the rules will be adjusted repeatedly, and debates are currently ongoing on some points, but the main stages of evolution from a commercial recreational game with four coloured balls, without scoring or determining a winner, into a sport with six coloured balls and a tournament component have been completed.
Several renowned professionals answered the challenge, but Tom Reece was the first to reach an agreement on all the terms. The match commenced on 25 May and kept the audience engaged for a fortnight, sustaining the suspense until the final moment. During the match, Roberts equalled the then-record break of 73 points, while Tom Reece stunned both spectators and fans following the matches through the press by announcing his wedding for the final day of the tournament.
The match concluded on 6 June 1908. Roberts won 54½ games (5,529 points), while Reece — 46½ games (5,209 points). Roberts achieved victory with a margin of 8 games and 320 points. As previously mentioned, the match’s most significant achievement was the decision to determine the winner based not only on the total points scored, but also on the number of games won. It is safe to say that this was a fateful event that determined the subsequent rise of snooker to the very heights of popularity.
6 June 1908 signifies the commencement of the contemporary period of snooker, which has encountered numerous peaks and troughs, yet has ultimately evolved into the sport we currently respect and appreciate, irrespective of the player who assumes the position on the table with a green baize surface, equipped with a cue.
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In conclusion, a brief summary is necessary. Over the course of several decades, the game of snooker underwent a significant transformation, evolving from a ‘cure for boredom’ to ‘chess on green baize.’
The original snooker that gained popularity was a commercial game comprising a pyramid of red balls, four coloured balls, and a white cue ball. There was no scoring system in place.
What is modern snooker? It is a twelve-foot table for English billiards, pyramid of red balls, six coloured balls, and a white cue ball. And a scoring system for winning a single game (frame). It is building block from which anything can be constructed, whether it be a modest dwelling, or a world-famous skyscraper. Subsequent developments are not the evolution of snooker, but rather significant stages in the development of tournament structure and the nuances of the sport called snooker.
The game was fully developed in 1908, when frames were first counted in a match (though they were still called games at that time). Since then, the game has undergone only a few rule changes, and has otherwise remained essentially the same.
And a final paragraph. A brief one. On 6 June 1908, Joseph (Joe) Davis reached the age of seven years, one month, and twenty-two days. There is a paucity of time remaining before snooker is granted its theoretical foundations and the world’s most elite billiards players compete at the World Snooker Championship.
This is a short version of the article. The complete version is available for download in PDF format at the following link:
The Birth of Modern Snooker. By V. Mordan. Rev. 10th October 2025